I wrote > > But Nosema spores are killed by water (and sunlight, and acetic acid > > fumes). > Aaron replied > Don't have my books, working from memory, going out on a limb. Nosema is a > paramecium, does not produce spores and thrives in water. > Sorry Aaron, not being a scientist I admit to not knowing what a paramecium is and too early in the morning to start searching for the answer, please inform me. But Bulletin 100 Diseases of Bees published by the (UK) Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food states, and I quote; "The length of time for which the spores can retain their ability to germinate depends upon the conditions to which they are exposed following their deposition with the excreta of infected bees. They remain viable for many months in dried spots of excreta on brood combs, for example, but lose their viability within a few days when suspended in water and exposed to direct sunlight. The spores are readily killed by heat and by suitable fumigants." The causative organism of Nosema is most certainly a spore and affects the mid-gut of the bee, queens and all. It is a parasite (is that a paramecium) which causes Amoeba and affects the Malpighian tubules, which without grabbing my books I believe are equivalent to the kidneys of the human. The sunlight method of treatment I have always discarded knowing that diseased combs would need to be left easily assessable to robbing bees, a sure way of spreading infection. Heat is obviously impractical but together with sunlight it proves that spores will be killed in the solar extractor. Yes I may be wrong regarding water, it was not until I checked my literature that I was reminded, "but lose their viability within a few days when suspended in water", but it also states dried spots. If a bee freshly excretes over my rubber gloves this would easily be flushed away in the bucket. So those spores are still in the bucket, I agree, and will not be dead for sometime afterwards, I now agree, but very few things are perfect in beekeeping. At least every effort should be taken to avoid the spreading of diseases and that is what I am promoting. On the same subject Peter Dillion commented on "athlete's hand and or digits that would pass for a prime pair of prunes" with temperatures at 30+. I agree with him and obviously have very little experience of continuously working in those temperatures, but have worn rubber gloves for long periods in the UK. Yes the hands do look as if I have laid in the bathtub for four hours, but effects partially relieved by wearing cotton liners under the rubber gloves. Ken Hoare - with the amount of water (rain) in Shropshire there should be no Nosema.