Copyright 2011 Elsevier Ltd. Quoted for review purposes only:

> Hosts can also reduce their likelihood of infection by sequestering compounds that reduce infection probability – a form of ‘prophylactic self-medication’. By mixing resin (a plant material rich in volatile compounds) with nest material, wood ants (Formica paralugubris) can increase their survival rates if challenged with bacterial and fungal parasites [14]. Hosts can also reduce the growth or burden of parasites once infection has occurred. 

> For example, parasitoid-infected arctiid caterpillars (Grammia incorrupta) can increase the uptake of anti-parasitic chemicals from their food, which reduces parasitoid success [15]. Also, parasite-infected monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) preferentially lay their eggs on plants that reduce parasite growth in their offspring [16]. 

> The microbial symbiont community of a host can also influence parasite growth after infection. Inverte- brates are often protected from parasites by symbiotic bacteria (e.g. [17–19]), which can strongly influence pop- ulation dynamics. For example, a recent study suggested the spread of symbiont-carrying Drosophila neotestacea through North America.

> Although many studies have found evidence for local adaptation of parasites to their hosts or hosts to their parasites, there are also many studies that have not found such evidence [78]. Many of these studies are undertaken by bringing hosts and parasites from multiple populations into the laboratory and assaying them for resistance and infectivity without reproducing the environmental conditions under which hosts and parasites interact in nature [79]. Hence, these experiments might not be able to detect local adaptation of hosts through non- immunological defenses.

Non-immunological defense in an evolutionary framework
Benjamin J. Parker, et al.  Trends in Ecology and Evolution. In Press.

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