Excerpts from this article from 1977 highlight the problems of that period. Organophosphates were being brought in to replace DDT and similar products which were found to be very harmful to animals other than the target insects. However, organophospates and microencapsulated parathion (Penncap) created new and more severe problems for beekeepers. The solution at the time was to give large amounts of money to beekeepers for their trouble. That was not a viable long term solution, of course, and newer safer pesticides as well as IPM programs. needed to be devised.

SYMPTOMS 

The most common symptom of bee poisoning is the appearance of excessive numbers of dead bees in front of the hives. Use of Todd dead bee traps (11) on honey bee colonies has shown that up to 100 dead bees per day is a normal die-off, 200-400 is a low kill, 500-900 is a moderate kill, and 1000 or more is a high kill. Aggressiveness in bees may be caused by such materials as lindane. and organophosphorus compounds. Stupefaction, paralysis, abnormal jerky or rapid movements, and spinning on the back are commonly caused by DDT, other organochlorine materials, and organophosphorus compounds. Bees are often observed performing abnormal communication dances on the horizontal landing board outside the hive while under the influence of chemical poisoning. Schricker and Stephen (82-84) showed that sublethal doses of parathion cause mistakes in communicating distance and direction of feeding sites and in time-sense.  

INDEMNITY 

The federal Bee Indemnity Program was established in 1970 to help insure a continuing supply of honey bees for pollination service. Beekeepers who through no fault of their own suffered losses after January 1, 1967, stemming from the use of economic poisons registered and approved by the federal government, could apply for and receive indemnity payments. Total payments to beekeepers throughout the nation for the period 1967-1974 was $18 million. This legislation has been extended twice and is currently in effect through 1977. The main objective of this program has been achieved: it has curtailed disintegration of the beekeeping industry. Fewer beekeepers are being driven out of business by poisoning losses, and most have been able to replace worn-out e quipment and increase both quantity and quality of their honey bee stocks.  

CONCLUSION 

Modern agricultural methods have aggravated bee poisoning and pollination problems considerably. Herbicide destruction of bee forage plants is a major factor in this situation. Removal of persistent organochlorine insecticides from agricultural crop uses by the Environmental Protection Agency often forces substitution of organophosphorus and carbamate materials, resulting in much greater hazard to bees. Formerly, properly timed treatments of DDT and endrin could be applied to blooming fruit or seed crops with relative safety to bees. Development of longer persistence in organophosphorus compounds can cause additional problems. Formulations such as ULV malathion and microencapsulated methyl parathion are much more hazardous than the standard formulations. Bee losses associated with many crop pest control programs have greatly increased for these reasons. 

PESTICIDES AND POLLINATORS
Carl A. Johansen
Ann. Rev. Entomol. 1977. 22:177-92

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