Hi All/Allen/Stan Thanks Allan and Stan for the interesting replies on the antibiotic issue. I have read arounda little more and have a few more things to add on this time bacterial spores and getting rid of them, as well as resistance. First I must appologise to all for being a little severe in one of my previous posts - bad day sybdrome. Recently it has been found that many bacterial spores are highly stable if stored in any fatty substance - they are also less likely to germinate. This has something to do with the fats connecting to the fats in the bacterial spore and stabilizing them. On the other hand the spores are likely to germinate under damp conditions. Hence I would geuss most AFB epidemics begin when there is an increase in moisture in the empty super cells - leading to germination?? On the other side, the inclusion of a high fat substance in ones vehicle for distributing the oxy-tet seems a bad move as it will probably result in the spores in the guts of the bees not germinating - or for that matter forming and not getting treated. As far as transfer of resistance in coliforms on hands and such - almost a definite. There is an interesting practical which they conduct here every year for microbiology. One takes a dilute solution of three different forms of the common gut bacteria, E.coli. Each form has a different marker on it/in it (such as a gene for resistance to an antibiotic, or a colour producer etc) and you place 10 micro litres (a very litte drop the size of a pin head) on one persons hand. Everybody walks around and shakes hands for five minutes and at the end on isolates bacteria of the hands and 99% of people have at least one colony forming unit (cell) of each bacteria on their hand. So the transfer of resistance into the hive is quite probable through this route. On the other side of this topic - high doses should remain effective as a prophylactic treatment for many more years - given than new antibiotics are coming out for human use that little resistance is present for I actually personally think that it may be advisable to treat with oxytet for AFB cases - but I still wonder about the long term negative effects. As for fumigillan I will have to go and scratch around a bit - and find out more about nosema. My geuss would be that it's mode of action is very very different to TM as it is acting on a completely different sort of organism. Standard antibiotics for bacteria are very easy to produce as they tend to target a part of the machinery in a bacteria the we, bees, cows and other higher animals do not have. This is usually something like the production of cell walls (penicillen) or protein synthesis (I think TM fits in here if my memory is correct). Hence getting something like nosema one has a greater chance of killing the host as well as the pest as both use the same machinery. As far as yeast infections go in bees - I am sure that HIV will help there with treatments - if treating is to help - as at present one of the main causes of AIDS related death is infection with the yeast Candida albiqans and family. Many many new yeast killing preparations have been developed. I will look around a bit and put any more stuff I find up for scrutiny. Keep well Garth Garth Cambray Camdini Apiaries 15 Park Road Grahamstown Apis mellifera capensis 6139 South Africa Time = Honey If you are not living on the edge you are taking up too much space!!