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> analysis of multiple individuals per subspecies indicates that the Western honey bee originated in Northern Europe.
From a basal origin in Northern Europe, A. mellifera dispersed to Southeast Europe (A. m. ligustica / A. m. carnica / carpatica) and extended to Asia Minor (A. m. meda / A. m. caucasia / A. m. anatoliaca). The European lineage then spread southward via the Levant into the Nile Valley, East Africa and Arabia (A. m. syriaca / A. m. lamarckii / A. m. jemenitica), and thence into sub-Saharan Africa (A. m. simensis / A. m. unicolor; paraphyletic A. m. scutellata & A. m. capensis including A. m. adansonii and A. m. monticola).
The Mediterranean lineage was re-established from the sub- Saharan lineage in Iberia and the Mediterranean islands (A. m. iberiensis / A. m. ruttneri + A. m. siciliana /...), and thence spread back into North Africa (... / A. m. sahariensis + A. m. intermissa). Partial sequences from other insular Mediterranean subspecies suggest affinity with the Mellifera (A. m. sicula, Sicily) or Southeast European lineages (A. m. cyprii, Cyprus; A. m. adami, Crete).
An mtDNA-based molecular clock estimates a European origin of A. mellifera 750 ~ 800 Kya, separation of more southerly lineages ca. 720 Kya, separation of African from Levantine / Nilotic / Arabian lineages ca. 660 Kya, and separation of Mediterranean from Sub-Saharan lineages ca. 250 Kya. Diversities within several subspecies date to > 100 Kya , whereas difference between Asia Minor and insular Mediterranean subspecies date to only a few 10s of Kya.
Carr, S. M. (2023). Multiple mitogenomes indicate Things Fall Apart with Out of Africa or Asia hypotheses for the phylogeographic diversity of Honey Bees (Apis mellifera).
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