I think the following excerpts from a 1968 publication are interesting. It mentions the fact that poisoning of bees is more than 100 years old, that systemics were in use in the 1960s, that arsenic poisoning from factories was widespread, Bt was being used extensively without harming bees. The general opinion was that beekeepers should keep their bees away from agricultural areas if possible, or risk pesticide kills. Many beekeepers in California chose to remain in Ag areas in order to obtain honey crops despite the risk. Also, it highlights the steady evolution toward safer pesticides; moving from crop dusting to systemics is certainly much safer for pesticide applicators, farm workers, and those living in agricultural areas.

* * *

The subject of pesticide toxicity to honey bees has been written about extensively since Shaw's review in 1941. This review lists 46 references and begins about the time that the agricultural industry began using pesticides in commercial amounts. Knowlton, in 1944 and 1948, reviewed 105 reports on honey bee poisoning. 

Todd & McGregor reviewed the early history of pesticide poisoning of bees, stating that the problem began in the early 1870's when Paris green was first used for codling moth control on apples. 

SYSTEMICS

In several tests Glynne Jones & Thomas treated mustard with 32P- labeled schradan and found that the material was translocated (5 to 20 ppm ) into the nectar of blossoms that were not present or were just buds at treatment time. These residues were high for a few days and disappeared in 3 to 4 weeks. Experiments showed honey bees could collect this contaminated nectar and store it in honey in the colony with no breakdown of the schradan for at least two and a half months. The material was nontoxic to the bees, but it is a source of contamination of the honey.   

INDUSTRIAL POISONING

The industrial poisoning of bees occurs from arsenic contained in the smoke from factories that burn low-grade coal or from fluorine, an air pollutant found around aluminum plants. Galob points to the poisoning of bees and suppression of swarming as a result of atmospheric pollution by lead compounds in the vicinity of zinclead mines. Svoboda pointed out that arsenic injury was usually severe within 3 to 7 km of an offending factory. Contaminated pollen is the main source of poison and may contain from 1 to 120 ppm. 

BACTERIAL PESTICIDE

Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner has been used extensively for the control of various insect pests on many crops. Such treatments have been shown to be harmless to foraging honey bees. When fed to bees and brood, some toxicity has been recorded, but whenused for wax moth control, as a dust or spray or impregnated in the wax, it appears to be safe. 

MOVING BEES

Most investigators who give suggestions for the protection of honey bees from agricultural pesticide applications point out that the safest precaution is to locate apiaries a minimum of four to five miles (6.4 to 8 km ) away from areas where pesticides will b e used. If apiaries are located in areas which are to receive hazardous treatments and no means of protection are available or suitable, the only solution is to remove the colonies to a safe place. 

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN USING HAZARDOUS PESTICIDES
NEAR HONEY BEES

Many pesticides are highly toxic to honey bees and other beneficial insects. The farmer, the beekeeper, and the pest control industry should cooperate closely to keep losses of beneficial insects to a minimum. For the protection of these insects it is essential to use the proper dosage of the safest material for bees and beneficial insects that will give good pest control. 

With few exceptions, pesticides applied as dusts are more hazardous to honey bees than when applied as sprays. Fine sprays and aerosols are less toxic than coarse sprays. Sprays of undiluted technical material may be more toxic than diluted sprays. Pesticides applied by airplane over bees in flight are more hazardous than are similar applications made by ground equipment. 

Modern pesticides, in contrast to arsenicals, are less hazardous to honey bees. In general, they have a shorter residual effect and usually a lower toxicity value than arsenic. Although the newer pesticides are used in greater quantities over larger areas and over a greater variety of crops than the arsenicals, they can usually be used with safety if the above facts and precautions are taken into consideration. 

PESTICIDE USAGE IN RELATION TO BEEKEEPING 
By L. D. ANDERSON AND E. L. ATKINS, JR. 
Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, California  
1968 Annual Review of Entomology Vol. 13: 213-238 

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